Cognition and learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge and skills through teaching (formal or informal) and personal experience.

Acquiring even the smallest, most seemingly straightforward piece of knowledge is a complex and multi-layered process, and difficulties may exist for one or more of the stages involved.

Cognition and learning difficulties are commonly divided into ‘general’ and ‘specific’ learning difficulties.

General learning difficulties are where the impact of the child or young person’s cognitive difficulties extends across all areas of the school curriculum – and typically into non-curricular domains too.

For example, a pupil may have difficulties with their learning in literacy, numeracy, science etc., as well as with the acquisition of functional (‘daily living’) skills and their social-emotional development.

Challenges such as working memory difficulties or difficulties with speed of information processing may be part of the profile of needs.

These terms, all referring to general learning difficulties, may be encountered:

• Moderate Learning Difficulties (MLD) – “Pupils with moderate learning difficulties will have attainments well below expected levels in all or most areas of the curriculum, despite appropriate interventions. Their needs will not be able to be met by normal differentiation and the flexibilities of the National Curriculum. Pupils with MLD have much greater difficulty than their peers in acquiring basic literacy and numeracy skills and in understanding concepts. They may also have associated speech and language delay, low self-esteem, low levels of concentration and under-developed social skills.” (Department for Education & Skills, 2005)
  
  
• Severe Learning Difficulties (SLD) – “Pupils with severe learning difficulties have significant intellectual or cognitive impairments. This has a major effect on their ability to participate in the school curriculum without support. They may also have associated difficulties in mobility and co-ordination, communication and perception and the acquisition of self-help skills. Pupils with SLD will need support in all areas of the curriculum. They may also require teaching of self-help, independence and social skills. Some pupils may use sign and symbols but most will be able to hold simple conversations and gain some literacy skills.” (Department for Education & Skills, 2005)
  
  
• Profound and Multiple Learning Disabilities (PMLD) – “Pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties have severe and complex learning needs, in addition they have other significant difficulties, such as physical disabilities or a sensory impairment. Pupils require a high level of adult support, both for their learning needs and also for personal care. They are likely to need sensory stimulation and a curriculum broken down into very small steps. Some pupils communicate by gesture, eye pointing or symbols, others by very simple language.” (Department for Education & Skills, 2005)
  
  
• Global Developmental Delay – This is typically defined as a delay in reaching developmental milestones in two or more of five developmental domains: speech and language; cognition; social and personal; gross and fine motor; activities of daily living. The term is often limited to children under 5 years of age, after which point MLD, SLD or PMLD may be used instead – and therefore it is usually encountered in Early Years practice.

Whereas it would reasonably be expected that children and young people with SLD or PMLD would require an Education, Health and Care Plan to help meet their needs, individuals with MLD may well have their needs met at SEN Support.

It would be anticipated that the majority of children and young people with MLD would attend a mainstream school.

Specific learning difficulties (SpLD) are where the impact of the child or young person’s cognitive difficulties is seen in a particular area of learning, such as reading or mathematics.

These terms, referring to types of specific learning difficulties, may be encountered:

Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling. Characteristic features of dyslexia are difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed. Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities. It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct category, and there are no clear cut-off points. Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia. A good indication of the severity and persistence of dyslexic difficulties can be gained by examining how the individual responds or has responded to well-founded intervention. (Rose, 2009)

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia (or mathematics disorder) is defined as a significant difficulty in numerical processing despite otherwise normal intellectual abilities and educational experiences. (Government Office for Science, 2020)

Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD)

Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) is the internationally recognised term for developmental dyspraxia. It is characterised by significant difficulties in both gross motor and fine motor coordination, which can cause widespread difficulties in daily life – for example in handwriting. Individuals with DCD often show additional problems in literacy, attention and social communication, and on average tend to show poorer educational outcomes. (Government Office for Science, 2020)

School support

It's understood that specific learning difficulties exist on a continuum of severity, and consequently support for these pupils’ special educational needs will exist at all levels of the graduated approach.

It's expected that most children and young people with a specific learning difficulty will have their needs met at SEN Support.

As with all areas of SEN, Buckinghamshire Council promotes a ‘needs-led’ (rather than ‘diagnosis-led’) approach. So it should be noted that identification or ‘diagnosis’ of a specific learning difficulty does not confer any additional school support or Local Authority resources on a pupil when compared with an individual with the same profile of needs who does not have a formal label. Similarly, having a diagnosis of a specific learning difficulty should not be a prerequisite for accessing any school-based support.

The impact of cognition and learning difficulties on an individual depends on the extent and severity of the problems faced, but all will result in a child or young person not making the expected rate of progress in one or more curriculum area, and not achieving age-related expectations.

In addition to slow progress and low achievement – either in a specific curriculum area or more generally – these are some indicators of potential cognition and learning difficulties:

Emotionality

The impact of having difficulties with thinking and learning skills can cause individuals to experience a range of negative emotions, including embarrassment, guilt and frustration. This may lead to feelings of low self-worth and depression, which in turn can manifest in a variety of internalising (withdrawing) and/or externalising (acting out) ways. Low attendance or the emergence of emotionally-based school avoidance (EBSNA) can also be indicative of difficulties with cognition and learning.

Inattention

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) commonly co-occurs with specific learning difficulties, and individuals with cognitive difficulties who do not have ADHD may still find it challenging to focus for the same duration – or to the same degree – as their classmates. Difficulties with concentration may link to pupils’ challenges with their short-term or working memory, which can mean that they are more easily ‘overloaded’ with information than their peers.

Off-task Behaviour

Individuals with learning difficulties may accidentally, or deliberately, engage in off-task or work-avoidant behaviours. Such behaviours may be internalised (for example, being a very withdrawn member of the class) or externalised (for example, being actively rude or defiant). This may relate to their difficulties with understanding, processing and/or remembering instructions and teaching points, and it might also link to their emotional response to experiencing work that is very challenging for them. The negative feelings from trying to engage with the work presented to them can be detrimental to their self-esteem, which can lead to pupils avoiding tasks because of low self-confidence and a desire to avoid further feelings of ‘failure’.

Low Resilience

Since pupils with cognition and learning difficulties may have become accustomed to finding schoolwork very challenging, this can lead to a state of ‘learned helplessness’ in which they instinctively rely on others for help – such as the support of a teaching assistant. This can mean that they feel they cannot succeed even when presented with activities that are within their ability level, and hence may be quick to ‘give up’ or resist making attempts in the first place.

Organisational Difficulties

Children and young people with specific or general learning difficulties can often find self-management and organisation challenging. This may be in evidence for individual activities (for example, having difficulty with planning an answer) or more broadly (for example, not bringing the correct clothing or equipment into school). They might also have difficulties with time management, such as routinely being late for classes or regularly missing homework deadlines.

In addition to the above, on its website the British Dyslexia Association provides ‘signs of dyslexia’ for adults to look out for, separated for Early Years, primary-age and secondary-age children.

Ordinarily Available Provision

Buckinghamshire Council’s Ordinarily Available Provision document includes a key section on suggested provision and strategies for supporting children and young people with cognition and learning difficulties.

Metacognition

Metacognitive strategies are those which help children and young people to think about their own learning. Research from the Education Endowment Foundation indicates that the potential for positive impact of metacognitive approaches is very high, particularly for disadvantaged pupils. Strategies should be introduced alongside existing teaching (rather than being taught in ‘standalone sessions’) to promote pupils’ application to their learning.

The Education Endowment Foundation’s website provides a range of free to download tools and resources for metacognition and self-regulated learning.

Schemes for Literacy Difficulties

There is a wide range of published intervention schemes to support the development of reading and writing in children and young people.

Greg Brooks has compiled a directory of those schemes that have been used – and evaluated – in UK schools. The publication 'What Works for Literacy Difficulties' is now in its 6^th Edition, and is complemented by an interactive website that allows easy searching of the interventions that have been evaluated.

Schemes for Numeracy Difficulties

Ann Dowker worked with the Department for Children, Schools and Families to produce the guidance document 'What Works for Children with Mathematical Difficulties', which provides information on the implementation and effectiveness of a variety of school-based interventions for supporting the development of learners’ numeracy knowledge and skills.

Teaching for Neurodiversity

The British Dyslexia Association’s website provides a range of guidance for educators in supporting individuals with specific learning difficulties. In particular, there are a series of free recorded webinars on the topic of ‘teaching for neurodiversity’, with associated advice on creating a more dyslexia-friendly approach at a lesson resource and whole-school level.

Support for Developmental Coordination Disorder

In the UK, the Dyspraxia Foundation is a charity that aims to increase awareness and knowledge of developmental coordination disorder. The organisation’s website includes advice for teachers and parents about what can be done to help support children and young people with DCD in the school environment.

Specialist Teachers

The Cognition and Learning Specialist Teaching Team, part of Buckinghamshire Council’s Integrated SEND Service, is a traded service that specialises in supporting schools to meet the needs of their pupils with specific and general learning difficulties. This can also include students with:

• dyslexia
• dyscalculia
• developmental coordination disorder
• associated problems such as ADHD and language difficulties

The Cognition and Learning Specialist Teaching Team mainly work preventatively but are also available to advise schools on particular strategies and interventions for pupils with an Education, Health and Care Plan. The team work with SENDCos, class teachers, and teaching assistants, as well as directly with pupils in schools.

It's recognised that schools need access to early intervention and support, and the Specialist Teaching Team will work with schools to provide this early support. As part of their ‘tiered approach’ to supporting schools, Specialist Teachers will provide the early intervention, assessment, and advice for pupils on SEN Support and those with EHC plans.

Visit the Traded Services website or contact sts@buckinghamshire.gov.uk for further information.

 

Educational Psychologists

The Educational Psychology (EP) Team are part of Buckinghamshire Council’s Integrated SEND Service. Educational psychologists undertake a range of work aimed at promoting inclusion, psychological well-being and raising standards for children and young people aged 0 to 25 years, across the full range of abilities.

There are two main aspects of the EP Team’s offer that relate to support for children and young people with cognition and learning difficulties.

Link educational psychologist

Every school in Buckinghamshire has an allocated ‘link educational psychologist’, who provides at least termly consultation meetings with the school’s SENDCo. These consultations could be used to discuss concerns and questions regarding supporting pupils with learning difficulties.

Request for advice

The EP Team are able to offer a small amount of time for the purposes of early intervention and support to schools. In this 'Request for Advice' model, schools, parents/carers or professionals can make a request for input from the EP Team regarding a specific concern.

Requests are submitted electronically using the Request for EP Advice form and are triaged on a half-termly basis. If a request is accepted then advice by the EP Team may be offered in the form of consultation, attendance at multi-agency meetings, training and (in rare cases) direct work with children, young people and families.

Advice may be offered by an Educational Psychologist, Trainee Educational Psychologist or Assistant Psychologist (or a combination of these) depending on the nature of the involvement required and the wider service exigencies.

For more information or to submit a Request for EP Advice form, please email eps@buckinghamshire.gov.uk